Heraclitus was an ancient Greek Philosopher that lived during the 'golden age' of Athens in the 5th century BC. His naturalistic yet metaphysical concepts would eventually influence the philosophies of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Heraclitus' philosophy was dualistic, and described the Universe from two principles. The first principle, visible, pertaining to natural phenomenon, and accessible to perception. The second principle, invisible yet present, pertaining to the transcendental, and accessible to intuition.  

1st principle: The Universe is constantly in a state of flux (change), and change is the only constant in the Universe. Reality and Time are much like a river that forever flow in a forward direction. Heraclitus stated that "You could never step into the same river twice, since new waters are continually flowing behind them." 

2nd principle: There is an underlying Singular principle called Logos (Reason) that governs all things in the Universe. It unifies and provides a fundamental Universal Order in all things. Heraclitus believed this principle is eternal, timeless, forever has been, is, and forever will be!

"This Universe, which is the same for all, has not been made by any god, but it always has been, is, and will be; an ‘ever-living’ fire, kindling itself by regular measures and going out by regular measures”. (Heraclitus, 5th century BC)

Along with China, Egypt, and Persia, India is one of the oldest lasting civilizations in history going back to 2700 B.C. India’s earliest civilization was composed of a population who lived in the Indus Valley, an area called Sind- from which the terms “India” and “Hindu” derive. By the year 2500 B.C., the early people of the Indus valley were a sophisticated Bronze age culture that lived in planned cities, with streets lined with fire-brick houses laid out in a grid, and a concealed sewage system that surpassed other parts of the civilized world.

During the year 1500 B.C., another population composed of warring, semi-nomadic tribes known as Aryans (“lords” or “nobles”) invaded the people of the Indus valley. These conquering lighter-skinned peoples enslaved the darker-skinned population of Sind and established a set of societal divisions that would eventually become known as the caste system of India. Although social hierarchies were common to the structure of all ancient civilizations including China, Egypt, and Persia, India’s caste system was the most rigid form of social stratification, with no allowance for upward mobility once a person was born into a certain societal class.

By 1000 B.C. four major castes existed in Indian society: priests and scholars, rulers and warriors, artisans and merchants, and unskilled workers. In time, these 4 castes would subdivide even further according to occupations that emerged as result of need and population growth. At the very bottom of the social order, lay those who held the most menial and degrading occupations. These were the Untouchables of Indian society.

Indian Epics: The Mahabharata the Ramayana

With their invasion, the Aryans brought with them the ancient language of Sanskrit, which would eventually become the classic language of India. For years, Aryan bards memorized and recounted stories of tribal wars that existed between competing Aryan families. These stories eventually formed the basis for India’s two great epics- the Mahabharata (Great deeds of the Bharata Clan) and the Ramayana (Song of Prince Rama), transmitted orally for generations and finally written down approximately in 700 B.C. These two Indian epics formed the foundations of Indian identity and culture, and have been the basis for much of the later poetry, drama, and art produced throughout India’s history. 

The Bhagavad Gita, the sixth book of the Mahabharata, is considered a central text of Hinduism. The book written in poetic form is a philosphical dialogue between Arjuna, the warrior-hero, and Krishna, the incarnation of the god Vishnu. In it, Arjuna is confronted by the prospect of shedding the blood of his own kinsmen in an upcoming battle, but is also seeking to reconcile his earthly obligations with a spiritual quest for selflessness. Krishna's final answer to Arjuna is one of resignation. 

The Bhagavad Gita discusses selflessness, duty, devotion, and meditation, integrating many different threads of Hindu philosophy. It is one of the most popular and accessible of all Hindu scriptures, and required reading for anyone interested in Hinduism.

From the Bhagavad Gita

He who knows bliss in the soul

Wants nothing else.

Cravings torment the heart:

He renounces cravings.

I call him illuminated.

Not shaken by adversity,

Not hankering after happiness:

Free from fear, free from anger,

Free from the things of desire,

I call him a seer, and illuminated.

The bonds of his flesh are broken.

He is Lucky and does not rejoice:

He is unlucky, and does not weep.

I call him illuminated.

India's Scared Texts: The Vedas

India’s oldest devotional texts, the Vedas ("sacred knowledge") also originated in the 1500 B.C., a time known as the Vedic era. The Vedas are a collection of prayers, sacrificial rituals, and hymns. Transmitted orally for centuries, the Vedas reflect the blending of the native folk traditions of the Indus valley population and that of the invading Aryans. 

The most important and ancient of the Vedas is the Rig veda ("praise knowledge"). It is counted as the most important among the four canonical sacred texts, with some its verses still recited as Hindu prayers at religious functions and other sacred occasions. The Rig veda contains several mythological and poetical accounts of the origin of the world, hymns praising the gods, and ancient prayers for life and prosperity.

In addition to chief Vedic deities such as the sky gods Indra and Rudra, the fire god Agni, and the sun god Vishnu, the Vedas provide a wealth of information concerning astronomical phenomena. The study of the stars, along with the practice of surgery and dissection in the Vedas, mark the beginnings of scientific inquiry in India.

The Vedas are considered the most religious texts of Hinduism, venerating all forms and manifestations of an all pervasive Spirit.  Although Hindus ultimately believe in the oneness of Divine Spirit, they worship that Spirit through a multitude of deities, including Indra, Rudra, Agni, and Vishnu.  Although the Vedic gods take numerous shapes and forms, they are still perceived by hindus as the emanations and manifestations of that one Divine Spirit. According to the Rig Veda, "Truth is one, but the wise call it by many names".

The Upanishads are a collection of 250 prose commentaries on the Vedas. Whereas the Vedas are religious in nature, and teach worship through prayer and sacrifice, the Upanishads are more philosophical, and teach worship through meditation and awareness of a transcendental Being. It is in the Upanishads that one can learn about Brahman, the infinite and formless unity behind all Reality. 

The Unmoved Mover is a philosophical concept described by Aristotle as the primal cause that set the universe into motion. To Aristotle, the Unmoved Mover is indivisible, timeless, and contemplating only what is perfect. He described the essence of the Unmoved Mover as pure “Thought Thinking on Itself”.

Aristotle's Reasoning:

Aristotle reasoned that since there is movement in the world, things that are moving must have been set into motion by something other than themselves. However, if everything was set into motion by something else, then the world would be an infinite chain of events that regressed back in time with no point of beginning. This is logically impossible!

Therefore, there must have been something that set into motion the first movement. This primal cause cannot itself have been moved by anything, but has set "Itself" and "all other things" in the universe into motion.

According to Aristotle's metaphysics, the universe exists in time, and moves through a chain of causal events, where causes bring about effects. In this chain of causality , all things in the Universe are both an Effect and a Cause. They are an Effect because they have been brought into existence by something previous, but also a Cause in that they will eventually bring about some future effect. The Unmoved Mover is the only thing not an Effect, and is not brought into existence by any Cause. It is the "Cause of Itself' and all other things in the universe.

Unmoved Mover ==> Effect/Cause ==> Effect/Cause ==> Effect/Cause